Mostrando entradas con la etiqueta Goldsmith. Mostrar todas las entradas
Mostrando entradas con la etiqueta Goldsmith. Mostrar todas las entradas

martes, 14 de enero de 2025

Sociobiología del Hombre de Negro

 

Comentamos el personaje del Hombre de Negro que aparece en las 'Cartas Chinas' de Oliver Goldsmith, atendiendo a la dialéctica entre egoísmo y altruismo que se da en estos relatos y de modo similar en otros personajes y obras de Goldsmith. Ponemos todo ello en contexto con las ideas económicas y morales de la época, en particular las de Adam Smith, atendiendo también a la relación que puede establecerse entre estas ideas sobre las actitudes y la naturaleza humana, y la comprensión de las motivaciones del comportamiento y de la sociabilidad humana que nos han dado el evolucionismo y la sociobiología.

 Texto completo:

Sociobiología del Hombre de Negro 

http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4315866

10 Pages Posted: 5 Jan 2023

José Angel García Landa

Universidad de Zaragoza

Date Written: December 13, 2022



English abstract: 

Sociobiology of the Man in Black

This paper examines the character of the Man in Black in Oliver Goldsmith's 'Chinese Letters', focusing on the dialectics between selfishness and altruistic behavior shown in these stories and likewise in other characters and stories by Goldsmith. This is set in the context of contemporary economic and moral ideas, particularly those of Adam Smith. These ideas on human nature and attitudes are also related to our current understanding of human sociability and behaviour as explained by evolutionary theory and sociobiology.

 
 

Note: Downloadable document is in Spanish.

Keywords: English literature, Oliver Goldsmith, Motivations, Selfishness, Altruism, Sociobiology, Sociability, Economic behavior

Garcia Landa, Jose Angel, Sociobiología del Hombre de Negro (Sociobiology of the Man in Black) (December 13, 2022). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4315866 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4315866

 

 

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También aquí:

_____. "Sociobiología del Hombre de Negro." In García Landa, Vanity Fea 25 April 2021.* (Oliver Goldsmith, Altruism, Sociality).

         https://vanityfea.blogspot.com/2021/04/el-hombre-de-negro.html

         2021

_____. "Sociobiología del Hombre de Negro." Net Sight de José Angel García Landa 13 Dec. 2022.*

         https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/publicaciones/sociobiologiadelhombre.html

         2022

         https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/publicaciones/sociobiologiadelhombre.pdf

         2025

_____. "Sociobiología del Hombre de Negro." SSRN 5 Jan. 2023.*

https://ssrn.com/abstract=4315866

http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4315866

         2025

         Biology & Anthropology eJournal  5 Jan. 2023.*

         https://www.ssrn.com/link/Biological-Anthropology.html

         2025

         Economic Anthropology eJournal 5 Jan. 2023.*

         https://www.ssrn.com/link/Economic-Anthropology.html

         2025

         Decision-Making in Economics and Finance eJournal 5 Jan. 2023.*

         https://www.ssrn.com/link/Decision-Making-Economics.html

         2024

         Behavioral & Experimental Economics eJournal 5 Jan. 2023.*

         https://www.ssrn.com/link/behavioral-experimental-economics.html

         2025

         English & Commonwealth Literature eJournal 5 Jan. 2023.*

         https://www.ssrn.com/link/English-Commonwealth-Lit.html

         2025

         Literary Theory & Criticism eJournal 5 Jan. 2023.*

         https://www.ssrn.com/link/English-Lit-Theory-Criticism.html

         2025

         History of Western Philosophy eJournal 5 Jan. 2023.*

         https://www.ssrn.com/link/History-of-Western-Philosophy.html

         2025

         Philosophy of Action eJournal 5 Jan. 2023.*

         https://www.ssrn.com/link/Philosophy-Action.html

         2025

_____. "Sociobiología del Hombre de Negro." In García Landa, Vanity Fea 14 Jan. 2025.*

         https://vanityfea.blogspot.com/2025/01/sociobiologia-del-hombre-de-negro.html

         2025


martes, 21 de junio de 2022

Goldsmith or "An Author to Be Let"

 by George SHERBURN and Donald F. BOND. 

From A Literary History of England, ed. Albert C. Baugh 

("The Periodicals and Oliver Goldsmith") 

London: Routledge, 1967. 1056-62.

Goldsmith or "An Author to Be Let"

Periodicals such as these here presented formed the background for the career of the foremost of hackwriters, Oliver Goldsmith.

(Note 11). Oliver Goldsmith (1730?-1774) was born in Ireland, where he received most of his education. From Trinity College, Dublin, he received the degree of B.A. in 1749. He studied medicine in Edinburgh, 1752-3, but took no degree there. He continued his medical studies at the University of Leiden, and traveled on the Continent through France, Switzerland and Italy. After his return to London in 1756 he attempted for two strenuous years to establish himself as a physician in Southwark and to augment his meager earnings by writingh reviews for the magazines. In 1759 he published his first book, An Enquiry into the Present State of Polite Learning in Europe, and by this time was launched on a busy career as a writer. By steady use of his facile pen he eventually made a good income, but he was apparently improvident, and died leaving debts amounting to about 2000 pounds. On these debts Dr. Johnson made the proud comment: "Was ever poet so trusted before?"—Goldsmith's Works (4v, 1801); ed. Sir James Prior (4v, 1837); J. W. M. Gibbs (5v, 1884-6); Plays, ed. Austin Dobson (1893, 1901); Complete Poetical Works, edd. Austin Dobson (1906); New Essays by Oliver Goldsmith, ed. Ronald S. Crane (Chicago, 1927); The Collected Letters of Oliver Goldsmith, ed. Katharine C. Balderston, The History and Sources of Percy's Memoir of Goldsmith (1848), with notes as The Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith (2v, 1854): Austin Dobson, Life of Oliver Goldsmith (1888); Arthur L. Sells, Les Sources françaises de Goldsmith (Paris, 1924). For many special studies of the canon and sources of Goldsmith see CBEL. 

Bibliographies of his work indicate that in the years 1757 to 1762 Goldsmith contributed to at least ten periodicals of differing kinds. The serial miscellany that he himself wrote, The Bee (1759), ran to only eight weekly numbers, but these early years of magazine writing in general served him well. He made many friends, and in 1764, when his first signed work, The Traveller, was published, he was already one of the original members of Dr. Johnson's Club. The magazines and reviews, however, were not sufficiently lucrative, and once his reputation was established Goldsmith took to translation and compilation as a means of further income. Among the many works in which he was concerned at least as reviser may be listed and abridgment of Plutarch's Lives in five volumes (1762), a History of England (1764) in two volumes, another in four volumes (1771), The Roman History in two volumes (1769), The Beauties of English Poesy in two volumes (1767), The Grecian History in two volumes (1774) and, most extensive and perhaps most interesting of all his compilations, An History of the Earth and Animated Nature (1774) in eight volumes.

(Note 12). James H. Pittman, Goldsmith's Animated Nature (New Haven, 1924); Winifred Lynskey, "The Scientific Sources of Goldsmith's Animated Nature." SP, XL (1943), 33-57.

During the fifteen years that elapsed between his first original book, his Enquiry into the Present State of Polite Learning in Europe (1759), and his death, Goldsmith must have either written, revised, translated, compiled, or supervised over two score volumes. No one will accept Horace Walpole's verdict that "Golsmith was an idiot, with once or twice a fit of parts"; but it is evident that he was a professional maker of books, who affords high delight from a relative few of his writings.

 

Goldsmith as an essayist

As an essayist he achieved his earliest and perhaps his greatest success.

(Note 13). The publication of Professor Ronald S. Crane's New Essays by Goldsmith (Chicago, 1927) has greatly stimulated a mass of research concerning the sources and the canon of Goldsmith's essays. This work has been done by A. J. Barnouw, H. J. Smith, A. L. Sells (pioneers in the field), and by R. W. Seitz, J. H. Warner, and Arthur Friedman. The extensive record of these researches may be found in the excellent bibliography of Goldsmith in CBEL, II. 636-50. The results of the work make it apparent that Goldsmith was capable of frequent, interesting plagiarism. Professors Crane and Friedman are preparing an edition of Goldsmith's works.

In his own days his essays could be read in the original periodicals or in three collections, to the sum of which later additions have been made. Thse collections were The Bee (not a reprint), The Citizen of the World (1762), collected from The Public Ledger, in which they had appeared serially as "Letters" (1760-61); and the Essays by Mr. Goldsmith assembled from the magazines and newspapers into a volume in 1765.

 

The Enquiry

Before these volumes appeared Goldsmith's Enquiry had helped readers to understand certain typical positions of its author. The book, to be sure, lacks the charm of the essays partly because, as Davies said, "the Doctor loved to dwell upon grievances." It is one of the long series of complaints made by writers that their art is both unappreciated and unrewarded. The mid-eighteenth century was vocal in its complaints of this sort. From another point of view the volume might seem to be a prose "progress of poesy"; for "polite learning" is here belles-lettres. Goldsmith's survey of the cultural state of the countries of Europe anticipated his Traveller, and is typically facile and moralistic. Everywhere he finds decay of the arts, and, since he thus seems an "ancient" rather than a "modern," one might think him a pessimist negating the popular belief in progress. Actually he believes in a theory of cyclic change with new achievements cmpensating for the obvious decay of parts. almost a philosophe in his devotion to finite causes of the human state, he blames the decline of the arts on faulty education (he is typically for the elegant, the humane, and opposes the technical and pedantic), on lack of patronage by the aristocrats, and, perhaps most surprisingly, on the literary critics, who discourage genius and malign all innovation. These positions, like many of Goldsmith's are easily taken and not thoroughly considered. The author himself was making an income as a critic; and such remarks as "The author who draws his quill merely to take a purse, no more deserves success than he who presents a pistol," somewhat naturally provoked sneers from his former employers on The Monthly Review. 


His Methods as Essayist

His essays were less querulous and more varied in tone. The bee, a periodical miscellany in octavo format, which appeared on eight Saturdays in October and November, 1759, contains some of his best small poems as well as an amusing diversity of prose—dramatic criticisms, moral tales, serious or fanciful discourses. Among the last perhaps the most famous is the Resverie ("The Fame machine"), in which he compliments The Rambler highly. Goldsmith excels in human details. In The Bee and in his other groups of essays we find interesting ideas expressed and we meet such amusing personages as the Strolling Player, who reminds us of Goldsmith himself as well as of George Primrose in the later Vicar; the Private Sentinel remind one at leas vaguely of Addison's Political Upholsterer in Tatler Nos. 155, 16y0, and 178. The methods of Addison and Goldsmith can be studied illuminatingly in these essays. The earlier writer is more definitely pointed and more brilliant in his satirical concept; the Upholsterer was a clearer comment on an age recently exposed to newspapers and their wild daily rumors. Goldsmith, on the other hand, is contentedly preoccupied with vivid and rich human detail; he creates his persons not merely as mouthpieces or as gorgeous eccentrics: strange as they are, he really likes them as people. 

He does, of course, at times use persons as topics or as mouthpieces. Mistress Quickly in the Reverie at the Boar's Head Tavern, certainly one of Goldsmith's happiest efforts, is vivaciously human, but she is obviously borrowed from Shakespeare for the purpose of avowing that it is futile to mourn over the degeneracy of the age, since "every age is the same." There is neither progress nor regress: there is compensated change always. Similarly, the figure of Asem the Man Hater merely is a personal center for a fantasy of various favorite ideas. Asem is taught the necessity of having the life of pure reason stimulated by emotion. He is taught the complementary lesson of the necessity of controlling one's rash benevolence by prudence. He illustrates the theory of cyclic change embodied in an individual life. Almost alone among the eighteenth-century descendants of Timon, Asem is cured of his misanthropy—by means of regenerated social emotions. At the end of the tale he is starting on a new cycle dominated again by benevolence; but the new round is to be an improvement; for his benevolence now is to be not rash, like Timon's but prudent.

 

 The Citizen of the World

(Note 14). The Citizen of the World, ed. Austin Dobson (1891); Hamilton J. Smith, Oliver Goldsmith's 'The Citizen of the World' (New Haven, 1926); also Martha P. Conant, The Oriental Tale in England in the Eighteenth Century (1908).

The Citizen of the World is perhaps Goldsmith's best sustained work. It is certainly the best example in English of the essay device so popular at the time in Europe, which made the essayist a foreign traveler (preferably Oriental; for philosophy came from the East) who wrote letters to his home country, describing and criticizing the strange customs of the lands through which he passed. The device, initiated in the late seventeenth century by G. P. Marana's L'Espion Turc and perfected in Montesquieu's Lettres Persanes (1721), throve in France where the critics of established institutions sheltered themselves behind the pretense of being foreigners. From Montesquieu's imitator, the Marquis d'Argens, author of a series of Letytres Chinoises (1739). Goldsmith drew much inspiration and even many small plagiarized passages.

(Note 15). Ronald S. Crane and Hamilton J. Smith, "A French influence on Goldsmith's Citizen of the World," MP, XIX (1921): 83-92. A noteworthy English link between Montesquieu and Goldsmith was the Letters from a Persian in England published in 1715 by George (later Baron) Lyttleton. This youthful and undistinguished piece of writing Lyttleton revised for a fifth edition (1744). It contains intersting political and social criticism, and had obvious but not very important influence on Goldsmith. Lyttleton tried his hand at another popular type of essay in 1760 when he brought out his Dialogues of the Dead. Mrs. Elizabeth Montagu of Blue-Stocking fame contributed three dialogues to this volume. On Lyttleton's letters from a Persian, see Samuel C. Chew, "An English Precursor of Rousseau," MLN, XXXII (1917): 321-37.

Long before D'Argens such writers as Le Comte and Du Halde had started a Chinese tradition that was invaluable to both D'Argens and Goldsmith. As this tradition developed, the Chinese were made into a race of philosophers, embodiments of simple reason and common sense; people who lived in a patriarchal society or under an absolute but perfectly benevolent emperor.  They honored men of letters above conquerors and military heroes, and were in religion rationally devout, tolerant—and altogether void of bigotry and "superstition." In a word, the Chinese traveler embodied the pure light of reason, and his mind played effectively over the customs of England and of Christendom in an impartial and at times devastating fashion. To him nothing established had an absolute validity; in the Orient, as these essayists all loved to remark, polygamy was perfectly respectable; in Christendom the marriage customs were frequently shocking. All things were relative. The philosophe had quite emancipated himself from the ecclesiastical interpretation of the universe. The excellence of all customs was to be estimated according to human and common-sense standards. If Goldsmith's "Chinese Letters" are less brilliantly trenchant than  the best of his French models, it is in part due to the fact that England was, by definition almost, the land of liberty, and the English, unlike the French, did not have "God and the king to pull down"—to borrow Walpole's phrase. Goldsmith is more playful, more relaxed, more superficial, more of the literary man, less of the revolutionary.

Thus these Chinese letters are most useful in giving a picture of Goldsmith's mind and the temper of his time. From the very beginning of his career he had loved to see the qualities of one country over against the qualities of another. He is a patriot, but a patriot who is sure each nation has its individual and superlative merit—as well as a contrasting defect. Upon this concept his poem The Traveller is based. The philosophic mind, he thinks, will attempt to absorb the diverse goods of all nations. It was, then, appropriate to call the "Chinese Letters" when they were reprinted, by a title  that haunted Goldsmith, The Citizen of the World. This phrase, picturesque and cogent from the ancient moment when Dionysius put it into the mouth of Plato, had a particular appeal to the illuminated, who abhorred the parochial. Goldsmith had used the phrase in his essay on National Prejudices (1760), in his Memoirs of M. de Voltaire (1761), and in the twentieth and the twenty-third of his series of Chinese letters. This title is philosophical rather than political in implication for Goldsmith, like many another proponent of cosmopolitanism in his day, believed that one should be aware and tolerant the curious opinions and customs of strange nations, but he did not deny the duty of a local allegiance; he rather insisted that local allegiance be subordinated to allegiance to the Whole.

In these "Chinese Letters" as well as elsewhere Goldsmith is also typical of his day in his praise of simplicity. Here Nature's "simple plan" (Letter III) is the catchword. To be sure, he is at times equivocal. Where wealth accumulates, men decay; but where there is no wealth, there are no arts, no graces of civilization, and these last are what the century really valued. Plain living and rigid intellectualism might easily become to Goldsmith a meager, bleak existence. He certainly tends to idealize something like an opulent patriarchal society, but even in his picture of "Sweet Authors" or of the Vicar's family at Wakefield, he forgets his dictum that "every age is the same," and shares the predilection for the simple, though not for the truly primitive.

 

 The Vicar

Goldsmith excelled in other types of writing as well as in the essay, and the mental processes seen in these essays carry over into his plays, his one novel, and even into his poems.

(Note 16). On Goldsmith's plays see Part III, ch. VI, n. 15.  [Below]

He illustrates the economic methods of the less shrewd authors of his day in his magazine work, and he also illustrates the curoius equivocal emancipation of mind typical of many men in his day. His attitude towards sentimentalism and towards "trade" are cases in point, and can be studied in The Vicar of Wakefield. 

(Note 17). Among the very many editions of the Vicar may be mentioned for their introductions and notes those by Austin Dobson (1883) and by Oswald Doughty (1928).

The plot of the Vicar is not complex: clouds gather more and more bleakly over the poor Primroses; finally when their complete misery seems assured, the sun shines out, all woes vanish, and we leave the family living happily ever afterwards. Goldsmith loved to portray simplicity, but his love of idyllic simplicity was curiously modified by economic considerations. After the South Sea Bubble a conservative reaction towards a trust in the land as the source of wealth and well-being prepared the way for the idealized farmer-philosopher. Consequently, when The Vicar of Wakefield finally appeared in 1766 (it was at least partly written four years earlier), its public was prepared for a "hero" who united in himself "the three greatest characters upon earth . . . a priest, an husbandsman, and the father of a family." There is, obviously, a connection here with sentimentalism, but the sentimental bearings of the Vicar are difficult to grasp justly.

(Note 18). F. Gallaway, "The Sentimentalism of Goldsmith," PMLA, XLVIII (1933). 1167-1181. 

Here as elsewhere—especially in the "Distresses of a Private Sentinel" (Citizen of the World, CXIX)—Goldsmith lavishly uses "distress" as material; but his attitude towards distress demands acute attention. The distresses of the Sentinel are so gross as to be absurd: they are far from moving tears, and at the end of the essay one can see the logical conculson: "Thus saying, he limped off, leaving my friend and me in admiration of his intrepidity and content; nor could we avoid acknowledging that an habitual acquaintance with misery is the truest school of fortitude and philosophy." We are not invited to weep; we are asked to admire intrepidity. Similarly we are told in the Vicar that "after a certain degree of pain, every new breach that death opens in the constitution, nature kindly covers with insensibility." Submission, intrepidity, fortitude, these are the lessons Goldmith wishes us to learn from the distresses of the virtuous. The tone of the novel is emotional and benevolist, but it must be noted that the good vicar himself is habitually caustic as to the absurdities of his socially ambitious females. The popularity of the book was and is doubtless due not to its overt moral purpose but to the author's attitude towards his material. Like his vicar, he seems "by nature an admirer of happy human faces"—preferably faces distinctly self-conscious in their happiness. One thinks of Greuze and the Accordée de Village. Both author and painter are self-conscious: their sentimentalism is intended to serve a moral or even divine purpose—not, however, quite too deep for tears.

Dr. Johnson's opinion of the Vicar was expressed to Fanny Burney. "It is very faulty; there is nothing of real life in it, and very little of nature. It is a mere fanciful performance."  This verdict is surprisingly severe, but not altogether unjust. The faults of the Vicar, like those of She Stoops to Conquer, are palpable, and yet for most people these works make still very pleasant reading. The charm is in part due to the imaginative glow that Goldsmith so effortlessly casts over the action of the Vicar (after all Daphnis and Chloe has its absurd side!), and to his flexible and easy style. 

 

Goldsmith's Prose Style

Much praise has been given to his style, which is indeed attractive. It lacks the coldness of the aristocratic manner, and it escapes the tendency of his generation to follow Johnson into excessive heaviness of diction and balanced formality of sentence structure. The unfriendly review of his Enquiry in The Monthly Review [Note 19: Monthly Review, XXI (1759), 381-389. The reviewer was William Kenrick] shows that Goldsmith's former colleagues were aware of his criteria of style—his avoidance of "the quaintness of antithesis, the prettiness of points, and the rotundity of studied periods"; and yet they proffessed to feel a "remarkable faultiness" in expression. Probably even for them Goldsmith was hardly bookish enough to be a "fine writer." It is precisely for this lack of formality and for his graceful and sensitive ease, fluency, and vividness that we value his style.


His Poems

At his death Goldsmith was commended usually for his poems; obituaries mentioned The Traveller and The Deserted Village rather more frequently than any of the prose works. Apart from these two masterpieces, and perhaps Retaliation, which is remembered for biographical rather than aesthetic reasons, his verse is interesting but unimportant. In these two poems he succeeds signally in the couplet tradition, in which most of his contemporaries were commonplace. The Traveller contains glowing statements of his cosmopolitanism, of his patriotic Toryism, and of his favorite notion of compensation; The Deserted Village presents the economic difficulties of rural life, the dangers of luxury and "trade's unfeeling train."

(Note 20). On the general background of The Deserted Village, see Julia Patton, The English Village: A Literary Study, 1750-1850 (1919). For a literary antecedent by Goldsmith in prose see Ronald S. Crane, New Essays by Oliver Goldsmith (Chicago, 1927), pp. 116-124, and the introduction. See also Howard J. Bell, Jr., "The Deserted Village and Goldsmith's Social Doctrines," PMLA, LIX (1944), 747-72.

These two are eighteenth-century masterpieces of the literature of statement: in them current ideas and attitudes are caught and are suffused sufficiently with genuine feeling to make them stir our imagination to this day. They are the work of a gifted author, happy in not too much education but richly endowed with human insight. Aesthetically he was a traditionalist; mentally he was of the Enlightement; he was too hard-headed to be a thorough sentimentalist, and too sympathetic to be an outright satirist. In spite of the pot-boiling nature of most of his books, his complex personal endowments with his especial gifts of flexible expression enabled him in several of his works to achieve fame as one of the most readable writers of his century.

 

[Goldsmith and Drama] - Opposition to Sentimental Comedy

Throughout his fifty years as playwright there had been notable objection to the sort of play called comedy by Cumberland and his admirers. Garrick himself passed jokes on the advisability of putting a steeple on the playhouse now that it was a temple of virtue, and sneered gently at "these our moral and religious days." Avowedly it was a warfare between two schools, one stressing the desire to promote morality and the other a desire to promote mirth and entertainment. But the contrast thus stated is surely too strong. If Hugh Kelly and Cumberland made obvious concessions to mirth, so Goldsmith and Sheridan, the two great writers supposed hostile to "weeping comedies," made concessions to morality. All plays, one may rashly say, were now moral, but some preached more explicitly than others. In general, also, the morality of the sentimentalists was excessively facile; from Cibber's Love's Last Shift (1696) to Cumberlland's First Love (1795) the erring are shamed into virtue with surprising—and unconvincing—esase. The situation, suggesting at times a not too sincere didacticism, is simply explained by the fact that audiences were readier to pay for tears than for laughter.

 

Goldsmith's Views

(Note 15). For treatment of Goldsmith's nondramatic works see below, ch. VII. [ABOVE] 

The subservience of the managers to their own commercial interests was what first moved Goldsmith to animosity, and his attacks on the managers in the chapter "Of the Stage" in his Enquiry into the Present State of Polite Learning in Europe (1759) was not forgiven by Garrick. He declined both Goldsmith's plays for Drury Lane, and in 1768 injured the success of The Good Natur'd Man by producing in competition it Hugh Kelly's new comedy, False Delicacy. Shortly before submitting She Stoops to Conquer to public censure, Goldsmith published in The Westminster Magazine [Note 17: For January, 1773; also in his Works (ed. J. W. M. Gibbs), I. 398-402] his essay A Comparison between Laughing and Sentimental Comedy. He bluntly queries "whether the exhibition of human distress is likely to afford the mind more entertainment than that of human absurdity?" He asserts that "the distresses of the mean by no means affect us so strongly as the calamities of the great." "While we melt for Belisarius, we scarcely give halfpence to the beggar." Goldsmith thinks that the success of so-called sentimental comedies, "in which the virtues of private life are exhibited, rather than the vices exposed, and the distresses rather than the faults of mankind make our interest in the piece," may be due to novelty or to "their flattering every man in his favorite foible." But he thinks such plays deficient in vis comica, and thinks audiences likely by being "too fastidious" to banish humor from the stage.


Goldsmith's Plays

In his Good Natur'd Man Goldsmith had not been too fastidious; he had instead offensively put fine sentiments about generosity into the mouth of a low bailiff—and of that scene the exquisite auditors forced the excision. But as a partial concession to such possible critics he had combined in his hero, Young Honeywood (as he had in Beau Tibbs and the Man in Black in his essays), both sentiment and criticism of sentiment. Young Honeywood, to his uncle's disgust, "loves all the world"; and such "love" is undiscriminating. "His good-nature arises rather from his fears of offending the importunate, than his desire of making the deserving happy." Thus Goldsmith preaches, here as elsewhere, a prudent benevolism. Honeywood, like Fielding's good men, is unsuspicious and easily deceived: the play is the history of his education, and in the process Miss Richland aids more actively than most eighteenth-century heroines could have done.  The subplot resembles that of Bevil Junior and Indiana in The Conscious Lovers: it is, if anything, less carefully constructed than Steele's story. Croaker—an obviously "humorous" character of the late Elizabethan type—is used to subvert sentientality: "Ah! my dear friend," he croaks, "it is a perfect satisfaction to be miserable with you." The play got little recognition from its early audiences, since in spite of its easy dialogue the whole lacks focus and structure, and even the comic effect its author sought.

She Stoops to Conquer (1773), on the other hand, was an immediate success, and has always remained one of the half-dozen most popular comedies in English. From the start it was recognized as almost farce; but even in days when it was ill-bred to laugh loudly, this play made Horace Walpole and the other exquisites "laugh very much." All English audiences since 1773 have joined in the laughter, and in spite of defects in structure, plausibility, and characterization, its appeal has hardly waned. Enjoyment here is not much heightened by analysis. One sees the improbability of the continued misapprehansion that the Hardcastle mansion is a country inn; one can accept the comic bashfulness of Young Marlow, but not his inability to distinguish a barmaid from a young lady; one is pleased with Tony Lumpkin's ability to display his Latinity in his song on The Three Pigeons in Act I, but surprised to find him practically illiterate in Act IV (he is of course stupid or shrewd as the individual situation demands); and one finds Mrs. Hardcastle's kneeling to her own husband in her own garden and fancying herself forty miles away on Crackskull Common face to face with a highwayman—one finds this a strain on the bedazzled imagination. These defects would kill any other comedy, and yet they count as nothing in this jolliest of all plays. Whatever its absurdities, the action seems to move naturally and among natural homely people—not the artificially sensitive persons found in sentimental comedy nor the hard, brittle wits of high comedy. The characters are all easily individualized—drawn again in the "humorous" Jonsonian fashion—and they are all individuals new to the drama of their day. The historic excellence of the work lies not in the fact that it is apparently anti-sentimental or that it is obviously attempting a revival of the comedy of manners. It is sui generis, not sentimental and not overtly anti-sentimental. It has been likened to the work of Farquhar, but it is better written and is morally innocent. Like much of Goldsmith's work, it is casually rather than carefully organized; and it is not too surely prophetic of more dramatic masterpieces from Goldsmith. He died a twelve-month after its success. The play has succeeded perfectly in being what its author hoped it would be—one of the most entertaining plays in English.


She Stoops to Conquer —in social networking style


—oOo—




 

    






To be continued...

domingo, 25 de abril de 2021

Sociobiología del Hombre de Negro

En su serie de ensayos The Citizen of the World, o "Chinese Letters", Oliver Goldsmith tiene un par de alter-egos entre los personajes, figuras irónicas en modo diverso los dos: uno es el visitante chino autor de las cartas, que observa con ojo crítico y nada ingenuo la sociedad británica del XVIII, es decir, un trasunto del el propio autor en modo irónico distanciador, al modo de Montesquieu en las Lettres persanes o Cadalso en las Cartas Marruecas. O Swift en tantos pasajes de Los viajes de Gulliver.  El otro trasunto es el amigo inglés del viejero oriental, the Man in Black. Este podría parecer mucho más cercano a Goldsmith en carácter y en algunos aspectos de su biografía, aunque también es por supuesto una versión de sí irónica y ficcionalizada.

Aclaremos que Goldsmith era cualquier cosa menos un man in black; aficionado desmedido a las ropas caras y llamativas, para sobrecompensar lo poquita cosa que era, no logró entrar en el clero, según dicen, por unas ofensivas calzas rojas que vestía cuando le fue a presentar su candidatura a un obispo. De haber vestido de negro en esa ocasión, quizá hubiera seguido vistiendo de negro toda su vida, pero su destino iba a ser otro: flautista itinerante y hippie avant la lettre primero, luego médico más o menos aficionado e incompetente, también pluriempleado ujier de colegio, dramaturgo y poeta, jugador empedernido y hombre de mundo, humanista polígrafo y periodista desbordado... 

Se dice que una de sus incompetencias como médico era una cierta incapacidad a la hora de cobrar sus honorarios, en particular de la gente necesitada. Y es cierto al menos que abundan en la obra de Goldsmith los personajes benevolentes un tanto autodestructivos, a modo de autorretrato sarcástico o de recordatorio personal, que invariablemente reciben lecciones prácticas sobre the way of the world. Hay algo de autorretrato irónico, por tanto, en todos estos retratos de benevolentes estafados o de altruistas enfrentados a la realidad de los intereses humanos. Es el autorretrato de un reincidente, de un desilusionado que sin embargo no se resiste a la benevolencia (como vemos en "The Man in Black" I), pues se ve llevado a ella por un impulso más fuerte que él y más fuerte que lo que la razón le dice sobre los hombres y el mundo. Es un reincidente doblemente reincidente, en cierto modo, pues aquí Goldsmith observa en sí mismo algo que ya había observado en su padre, otro inocente o generoso excesivo, o ingenuo estafado, que sirvió en parte de modelo para el por otra parte modélico Dr. Primrose de The Vicar of Wakefield.

Nos dice Charles Duke Yonge sobre "The Man in Black" (II):

This description of the father of the Man in Black is understood to have been taken, in many of its incidents, from the character and situation of Goldsmith's own father. In that respect, it resembles the pictures he drew of Dr. Primrose in the opening chapters of the 'Vicar of Wakefield', and the resistance of the Man in Black to the proposal that he should become a clergyman was a representation of at least some of the considerations which comforted Goldsmith himself when the Bishop refused to admit him to ordination. So again the position in which the Man in Black found himself as a hanger-on to a great nobleman, is portrayed in the adventures of George Primrose as the humble companion of Squire Thornhill.

Más conocido que este autorretrato caricaturesco titulado "The Man In Black" (II) es el ensayo o sketch sobre "The Man in Black" (I), en el que se nos presenta al amigo del filósofo chino como un teórico enemigo de la caridad que, sin embargo, da limosna en secreto a los necesitados cuando cree que no lo ven los auditores de sus diatribas sobre la necesidad de ayudarse a sí mismo. Es decir, es un hombre en el que están en conflicto una teoría y una práctica, y más allá, una teoría social (o económica, o antropológica) y las emociones—es un man of feeling, muy de su época, mal que le pese, aunque también se nos presenta inicialmente como la caricatura de lo que podría ser el capitalista liberal de su siglo, supuestamente teorizado por Adam Smith o quizá más bien caricaturizado así por la posteridad. 

Esta paradoja aparece planteada, y resuelta, de otra manera muy distinta, en el inteligentísimo relato "Asem: An Oriental Tale", titulado a veces "Asem the Man-Hater." Hay muchas cosas en este relato, y en otro artículo ("Goldsmith darwinista") ya señalé sus relaciones con el protoevolucionismo dieciochesco del Universo Pleno y la Gran Cadena del Ser  (—véase también el ensayo "Addison on Aliens" para ver hasta qué punto es protoevolucionista esta concepción). Hay también en Asem otra versión del autorretrato del good-natured man que se ve frustrado y aprende una lección sobre los excesos de la confianza y la benevolencia. Aquí Asem comienza como "buen cristiano" (si bien en el relato es un musulmán) desprendido y generoso, dando todo a los pobres sin cuidarse de su propio futuro y bienestar; y tras pasar por la ruina, el desengaño y la misantropía, termina como un comerciante próspero y cuidadoso con su libro de asientos, contribuyendo a la sociedad un poco al estilo de La fábula de las abejas de Mandeville, o sea, empezando la caridad por uno mismo.

Encontramos en Asem, pues, una caricatura del idealismo altruista, cristiano o (en modo anticipatorio) vegano y woke, pues a estos activistas modernos nos recuerda Asem cuando sueña con un mundo vegetariano, sin violencia entre las especies, ni impacto ecológico discernible. Pero cuando el Genio le transporta efectivamente a un mundo construido sobre estos principios, se encuentra Asem con que en ese mundo los humanos no son propiamente humanos, sino que son (como dice Yuval Noah Harari en Sapiens) un animal tan insignificante y tan carente de historia y cultura como las cucarachas o los orangutanes. La civilización se erige no en el Edén vegano, sino sobre principios un tanto más desagradables, asertivos, interesados y carnívoros, y sobre modalidades de cooperación más complejas que la mera benevolencia altruista.

Comparando el relato sobre Asem con los ensayos titulados "The Man in Black" se aprecia mejor una recurrencia de temas y una coherencia, y el triángulo queda completado una vez tenemos en cuenta un cuarto vértice que termina de cuadrar este complejo intertextual: la vida del propio Goldsmith. A lo que podríamos añadir los ecos autobiográficos presentes en numerosas obras, desde "The Deserted Village" a "The Traveller". Se hacen con ello más perceptibles los elementos de autobiografía, más o menos literales o más o menos figurativos, que subyacen y dan forma a la ideología de estos relatos. Autobiografía interpretativa, sobre el propio trayecto vital y sobre los rasgos o debilidades de carácter que llevaron primero a un decurso vital fracasado y finalmente a un autoconocimiento, enmienda y reconciliación con la realidad propia y la capacidad de acción en un entorno social, en el que juegan valores tanto éticos, empáticos y humanitarios como económicos, egoístas y prácticos.

En el primer relato sobre el Hombre de Negro (nº XVI en la edición referida) veíamos la contradicción entre un altruismo de temperamento, al parecer irrefrentable, y la teoría económica que lo desautoriza y desmiente. Así sermonea, en pura teoría, al visitante chino:

"In every parish house (...) the poor are supplied with food, clothes, fire, and a bed to lie on; they want ono more, I desire no more myself; yet still they seem discontented. I am surprised at the inactivity of our magistrates, in not taking up such vagrants, who are only a weight upon the industrious; I am surprised that the people are found to relieve them, when they must be at the same time sensible that it in some measure encourages idleness, extravagance, and imposture. Were I to advise any man for whom I had the least regard, I would caution him by all means not to be imposed upon by their false pretences; let me assure you, sir, they are impostors, every one of them, and rather merit a prison than relief." (97)

Obsérvese que la aparente teoría anti-caritativa o chacun pour soi del Hombre de Negro no es tal, pues está dando por supuesto el sistema de caridad organizada de la Iglesia, esa seguridad social primitiva que impedía la carencia terminal, alimentaba o albergaba a los necesitados y aseguraba al menos la paz social. A lo que se opone el Hombre de Negro es a la "doble imposición" que suponen la caridad individual o la tolerancia de la mendicidad. Pero su oposición resulta ser más teórica que práctica, pues el narrador chino no sólo le ve dar discretamente todo lo que lleva encima, pagando de más por unas cerillas que le ofrecen, sino que observa que si no lleva más es porque lo ha dado antes a otros, cuando no era observado. Y ahore da como limosna las cerillas que ha comprado con sobreprecio.

En su prefacio a Essays of Oliver Goldsmith, Yonge señala la inspiración autobiográfica de diversos episodios de la ficción de Goldsmith, y observa sobre su carácter desprendido e impulsivo lo siguiente: 

"It is characteristic of the impulsive good-nature which, to the end of his life, was a marked feature of his disposition, that, though he had only five shillings left to carry him back to his home, mor than 100 miles distant, he gave half of it to a poor woman whom he met on the road, and who moved his compassion by a piteous tale of distress. He calculated, indeed, on obtaining a futher supply from a friend whom he himself had often obliged in a similar way; but who, on being applied to, ungratefully turned his benevolence and subsequent distress into ridicule" (vii).

Veremos que "El Hombre de Negro (II)" extrae consecuencias más amargas y maquiavélicas de esta lección vital.

El contraste entre rigorismo económico y altruismo benevolente no queda resuelto en el primer relato, y ello provoca la mirada irónica del narrador chino que observa los absurdos actos de caridad del que era un supuesto darwinista social avant la lettre, el cuasi-spenceriano Hombre de Negro, cuyo severo exterior esconde un corazón de oro (al menos en el primer relato). A pesar de sus teorías sobre el parasitismo social y lo contraproducente de la beneficencia, en este aspirante a economista liberal en realidad prima al final la caridad cristiana, y eso le hace tanto más entrañable para el visitante extranjero que toma nota de sus contradicciones. En términos de sociobiología evolucionista, observamos un individuo social en el que prima el altruismo antes que otro móvil de conducta señalado por los sociobiólogos, a saber, el castigo a los parásitos que abusan de la sociabilidad altruista. Para la observación valorativa del autor implícito, no cabe duda de que el pobre Hombre de Negro (I) recibe una alta aprobación, a pesar del potencial ridículo de sus contradicciones. Es curioso que las teorías en sí no quedan ridiculizadas o desmentidas, son buena teoría, pero la práctica social es más diversa y no obedece a un solo motivo. El humor viene de comprobar que estas dinámicas sociales contradictorias pueden darse simultáneamente en un mismo individuo, haciendo de él una contradicción viviente. El viajero chino se limita observar que es mucho sermoneo por parte del Hombre de Negro para luego contradecirse él mismo: en el chino no se dan tales contradicciones, "He was proceeding in this strain, earnestly to dissuade me from an imprudence of which I am seldom guilty"...  Quizá, por ello, a pesar de que este viajero chino sea el alter-ego más obvio del autor, podamos ver en el Hombre de Negro una analogía más cercana a ciertos aspectos del propio carácter de Goldsmith que el autor está retratando, de modo irónico, pero seguramente certero, en un autorretrato desplazado.

Es en el segundo relato sobre el Hombre de Negro (cap. XVII en nuestra edición) donde encontramos analogías todavía más significativas tanto con las experiencias vitales del propio autor, como con la didáctica económica que veíamos en "Asem." Es una historia de errores de juventud y de imprudencia económica, seguida por una enmienda y una madurez estable, serena y castigada por la experiencia de la vida; la actual prudencia contempla la vida pasada desde la atalaya de la retrospección, y diagnostica los pasados errores y los posteriores aciertos que llevaron hasta este momento de sabiduría y serenidad. Aquí relata el Hombre de Negro la historia de su vida, que tiene algunos paralelos con la vida de Asem y muchos puntos de contacto con la de Goldsmith. Veremos, por tanto, cómo el personaje va madurando desde una ingenuidad ridícula apenas reconocible como propia, hasta acercarse mucho más, a la vez que al presente narrativo y al narrador intradiegético, el Hombre de Negro, a la identidad y valores del propio autor implícito.

El padre del Hombre de Negro, al igual que el de Goldsmith, es un clérigo, y ambos son benevolentes y generosos o caritativos, con un punto de vanidad, pues observa el narrador que sus actos de generosidad se los pagaban de vuelta con loas, "for every dinner he gave them they returned an equivalent in praise, and this was all he wanted" (101). Es un cristiano, no cabe duda, pero también un ingenuo y un imprudente: "he loved all the world, and he fancied all the world loved him" (101). No se cuida de dejar un patrimonio a sus hijos (gran imprudencia) y atiende más a los lejanos que a los cercanos, contrariamente a los principios de buena economía observados por Adam Smith. En un error de concepto, prefiere dejar a sus hijos formación que patrimonio, pero la formación es errónea, pues en ella la benevolencia cristiana no se ve compensada por una dosis igual de realismo y prudencia—y así convierte a sus hijos, a imagen y semejanza suya, en "mere machines of pity" (102), con insuficiencia de criterio que les diga hacia dónde orientar esa benevolencia que no puede ser infinita, pues limitados somos. Sus hijos, donantes universales como él, no son capaces de establecer prioridades ni de distinguir las necesidades reales de las fingidas; en suma, que ni tienen criterio ni saben distinguir la verdad de las imposturas. "In a word, we were perfectly instructed in the art of giving away thousands, before we were taught the more necessary qualifications of getting a farthing" (102).

Su padre, nos dice el personaje, le da una educación poco realista, basada en un saber obsoleto y que ya nada importa al mundo, y lo envía así desprotegido y sin a la pelea de gladiadores que (ahora ya sabe el Hombre de Negro) es el teatro social de la vida. En la universidad es mediocre y no se distingue en absoluto (como el propio Goldsmith, pues sigue aquí el retrato autobiográfico—y autobiográfica es muy posiblemente la valoración que recibe de su tutor universitario, y que va a servir de Leitmotiv o casi de estribillo a la historia de la vida del Hombre de Negro: a saber, su tutor, como todo el mundo luego, opina de él que es un personaje de buen carácter e incapaz de hacer el mal. Valoración que es la más alta que va a recibir, unánimemente, a lo largo de su vida. 

Seguidamente vemos la versión que elige darnos Goldsmith de su frustrada carrera eclesiástica. No se mencionan los calzones rojos, pero sí la aversión que tenía al traje eclesiástico... y al negro, que es ahora en su madurez el color que lo caracteriza. Renuncia pues a una vida no precisamente llena de atractivos espirituales, pues esos no se mencionan, sino de comodidad e indolencia, por un capricho infantil, una fijación desmedida con las ropas. A las que ahora ha renunciado, como bien puede ver el visitante chino—y aquí hay que observar que Goldsmith está retratando su futura madurez anticipada, pues murió el autor no muy entrado en años y todavía muy aficionado a los trajes caros y de colores vistosos, y en absoluto al negro que sin embargo ya entreveía por el horizonte futuro, a modo de autocrítica. Sus amigos observan que al no elegir el camino eclesiástico ha echado a perder su carrera, pero repiten que es buena persona sin capacidad alguna para hacer el mal.

Sobre el origen autobiográfico de estos episodios observa Yonge lo siguiente:

This description of the father of the Man in Black is understood to have been taken, in many of its incidents, from the character and situation of Goldsmith's own father. In that respect it resembles the pictures he drew of Dr. Primrose in the opening chapters of the 'Vicar of Wakefield,' and the resistance of the Man in Black to the proposal that he should become a clergyman was a representation of at least some of the considerations which comforted Goldsmith himself when the Bishop refused to admit him to ordination. So again the position in which the Man in Black found himself as a hanger-on to a great nobleman, is portrayed in the adventures of George Primrose as the humble companion of Squire Thornhill. (201)

Pues en efecto, seguidamente intenta el Hombre de Negro, como el hijo del Vicario de Wakefield, ser cortesano pobre o más bien parásito y adulador de un aristócrata, otro ejemplo de situaciones recurrentes en la ficción y biografía de Goldsmith. Pero el futuro Hombre de Negro es demasiado inteligente y se nota que sus halagos no son sinceros, así que por tanto no sirve para el puesto y es despedido por su patrón, que sin embargo concuerda que es una persona de buen carácter e incapaz de hacer el mal, algo que empieza a sentirse ya como una maldición o como una... incapacidad del futuro Hombre de Negro. Veremos que este relato es un pequeño Bildungsroman, la historia de cómo el personaje narrador adquirió su costra de negro, moderando su incapacidad de hacer el mal y logró así sobrevivir en el mundo.  (Se apreciará el paralelismo de fondo con la filosofía y el argumento de "Asem").

El siguiente episodio vital que nos narra el Hombre de Negro es su experiencia con el amor. Cortejó a una jovencita con la que parecía entenderse, ya que ella se reía ante él de su rival Mr. Shrimp, un petimetre que calzaba zapatos de tacón alto. En su entusiasmo con la jovencita, que tenía buena fortuna y vivía con una tía suya, el Joven Hombre de Negro no pareció atender mucho a que la joven le hablaba de amistad y de la belleza de la mente, no de amor ni de otros atractivos. Recordemos que Goldsmith era notoriamente feo, poquita cosa y desfigurado por la viruela, algo que procuraba compensar al menos en su mente con la elegancia (o "elegancia") en el vestir. También parece apuntarse aquí discretamente que la fortuna de la jovencita no era el menor de sus atractivos para el Hombrecillo de Negro... que recibe su castigo quizá merecido cuando, al declararse a la joven, ésta le informa que se había casado poco antes con el señor de los tacones altos... Pero que una idea factible era, según ella, que el frustrado enamorado dirigiese sus atenciones a la señora tía, pues de buena tinta sabía la sobrina que tenía muy buena opinión del Joven Hombre de Negro, o al menos lo consideraba una buena persona sin capacidad alguna para hacer el mal.

Esta historia también sugiere una raíz autobiográfica, al menos en sus fundamentos, pues de las conversaciones privadas de Goldsmith sólo podemos saber lo que elija él contarnos probablemente ficcionalizado y entre líneas. Goldsmith nunca se casó, pero no fue indiferente a la atracción de las mujeres. De hecho tuvo durante años una célebre obsesión amorosa no correspondida (no correspondida con amor, aunque sí con afecto amistoso) con la que llamaba su Jessamy bride, Mary Horneck, una jovencita a la que acompañó durante un viaje en familia a París. Para Washington Irving entre otros, es una historia de amor imposible o frustrado o unidireccional por parte del autor, unrequited love. No se sabe a ciencia cierta que hubiese una declaración y rechazo de por medio, pero sí hubo una burla pública a Goldsmith en la prensa, y una furibunda respuesta de éste al autor de la misma (Kenrick, y el editor de The London Packet Thomas Evans). Nos dice Tom Taylor (II,71) que al morir Goldsmith poco después de este incidente, la muchacha hizo abrir el ataúd para cortar un rizo de cabello del autor, y al parecer lo conservó toda su vida, hasta su muerte casi setenta años después. Mary, más adelante señora de Francis Edward Gwyn, vivía por entonces no con su tía sino con su hermana y la madre viuda de ambas, y hay otras circunstancias que varían en la ficción de Goldsmith, como el matrimonio con el petimetre, pero las conexiones autobiográficas sugeridas por esta historia pudieron traslucirse lo suficiente como para dar lugar, sumadas al cotilleo del mundillo social y literario del momento, a las burlas que sufrió el autor por su frustrado enamoramiento. Seguramente no faltaron (pero especulo) quienes, contemplando burlonamente el enamoramiento del feucho autor por la adolescente, comentasen que la madre viuda sería una pareja más adecuada para Goldsmith, especialmente tras el viaje a París en familia. Goldsmith usó el apelativo "Jessamy bride" para Mary Horneck en un poema de 1769; el viaje a París fue en 1770, la pelea con Kenrick en 1773, y el episodio del ataúd y el rizo en 1774. Ahora bien, lo realmente llamativo es que el relato de The Citizen of the World es muy anterior, anterior a la fecha (1766) en que Joshua Reynolds presentó a Goldsmith a esta familia, a la señora y señoritas Horneck. Es decir, que esta historia se superpuso a la ya existente (premonitoriamente por así decirlo) en la ficción—un caso digno de ser estudiado por Pierre Bayard (ver mi artículo "(El) mañana habrá sido escrito"). Quizá se trate de un caso de complejo emocional recurrente, o de premonición de carácter similar a la que llevó a Oscar Wilde describir su encuentro con Lord Alfred Douglas en El retrato de Dorian Gray, antes de que tuviese lugar en la vida real. 

Es, en todo caso, un episodio más de realpolitik de la vida social, y un capítulo más en el desengaño con el mundo y educación emocional del Hombre de Negro—que, como vemos, es en su madurez un estoico desilusionado de la escuela de Timón de Atenas. La obra de Shakespeare, sobre la lección que un ingenuo generoso y desprendido recibe a manos de los desagradecidos, es un trasfondo necesario tanto para la historia de Asem como para la del Hombre de Negro. En "Asem" se nos despacha en unas pocas líneas la acción que aquí se desarrolla en unos párrafos: cómo la generosidad del protagonista va unida a un buenismo poco realista y a una ignorancia del mundo y de la gente. Las personas a quienes ayuda no hacen sino traerle problemas y no responder luego cuando las necesita; los amigos que supuestamente estaban dispuestos a prestarle cuando tenía dinero, no lo hacen cuando realmente lo necesita; actuando como avalista imprudente de un imprudente, acaba en la cárcel—y descubre que no está llena de ingenuos benevolentes como él, sino de personas taimadas y avisadas del mundo, que siguen explotándole y estafándole. 

La cárcel actúa como un inframundo—el inframundo imaginario del lago en "Asem"—y prepara al protagonista para un nuevo nacimiento a la sociedad, tras "an entire reformation in my conduct and behaviour" (107). En lugar de ser abierto, generoso, buenista e ingenuo, pasa a ser como aquellos a quienes conoce y desprecia, y el acto simbólico con el que inaugura su nueva vida es negar dinero a un viejo conocido que se lo pide, cuando bien podría haberle ayudado. Pero a estas alturas ya es una cuestión de principios. Se hace una reputación de agarrado y ahorrador que le hace subir en la estima social: la gente ya no lo desprecia sino que lo respeta; se resiste a quienes buscan casarle con sus hijas. Su nuevo carácter es el buscar su propio interés, y la gente entiende rápidamente ese lenguaje—su reputación sube. "Me hice amigo de un concejal sólo por observar que si le quitamos un penique a mil libras, ya no tenemos mil libras". Quizá se case con una viuda rica. "Si hay una colecta para beneficencia, voy pasando el sombrero pero yo no pongo nada", y no da limosna. Como Asem, se ha vuelto un ciudadano respetado y ha puesto en orden sus asuntos financieros dejando atrás el buenismo y guiándose por el interés, que lo mueve ahora en armonía con el resto de la sociedad; "no dando nada, mantenemos la posibilidad de dar mucho". Con esta lección termina el Hombre de Negro su explicación al Viajero Chino, y su apólogo vital, que es también, como sucedía en Asem, toda una teoría económica muy en la línea de Adam Smith.

Es un autorretrato cínico y caricaturesco, el de "The Man in Black (II)", que viene atemperado sin embargo por varias circunstancias. Primero, que Goldsmith quizá viese la lógica expuesta por el Hombre de Negro (II), pero no llegó a practicarla a pesar de las tentaciones, y fue generoso e imprudente hasta el final (sin llegar a vestir ropa negra). Segundo, que el relato anterior ("The Man in Black (I)") muestra que la teoría del Hombre de Negro y su práctica son a menudo contradictorias—tanto, que parecemos habérnoslas con dos Hombres de Negro distintos, o dos posibles versiones del personaje en el que Goldsmith busca proyectarse. Uno de los versos más famosos del autor, en The Deserted Village, lamenta los estragos en la vida rural y las comunidades tradicionales producidos por el desalmado capitalismo ("Trade's unfeeling train"). Es curioso ver a Goldsmith como una especie de portavoz de Adam Smith en 'Asem' o en 'The Man in Black (II)', a la vez que dividido con sus tendencias naturales irreprimibles, benevolentes y sentimentales, en The Deserted Village, o en "The Man in Black (I)". 

Quizá sea la paradoja inherente al altruismo—que se aplica sabiamente no de modo indiscriminado, sino más bien favoreciendo a quienes son nuestro prójimo.... ¿pero quiénes son nuestro prójimo, exactamente? Parece ser una cuestión irresoluble, si le preguntamos a estos dos Hombres de Negro. 

En su libro de psicología evolucionista The Meaning of Human Existence, el sociobiólogo E. O. Wilson señala dos tendencias básicas e inherentes a la sociabilidad humana: una de fondo, más básicamente darwiniana, es la lucha por la vida, la competición con otros individuos y el cultivo egoísta de los intereses que favorecen al individuo; la otra, un desarrollo posterior y más específico de la sociabilidad humana (un desarrollo que no llega a eliminar la primera tendencia, sino que se construye sobre ella), lleva al individuo a posiciones altruistas, que favorecen no tanto a su persona como al grupo social al que pertenece. Esta otra tendencia básica de la psique es la que permite las actitudes desprendidas como las que caracterizan al Hombre de Negro I y al II cuando era joven. Son las que hacen a la sociedad humana una sociedad cohesionada y cooperativa, en competición eso sí con otros seres vivos, incluyendo otros grupos humanos. (Por eso decíamos que esta tendencia no anula la lucha por la vida sino que se construye en su seno, o sobre ella).

"In a nutshell, individual selection favors what we call sin and group selection favors virtue. The result is the internal conflict of conscience that afflicts all but psychopaths" (Wilson, The Meaning of Human Existence 179).

Son estas dos tendencias inherentes a la sociabilidad humana y a las motivaciones del comportamiento las que vemos dramatizadas, a modo de contradicción paradójica, en la figura del Hombre de Negro, como resultado al parecer de la intensa manera en que Goldsmith sentía la paradoja del altruismo en sí mismo, en conflicto y coexistencia con sus agudas observaciones sociales del comportamiento propio y de otras personas. Goldsmith nos muestra cómo estos principios de comportamiento, cuya raíz sociobiológica y evolucionista desvela E. O. Wilson, inspiran no sólo dos teorías económicas contradictorias en su época (lo que podríamos llamar el tradicionalismo benevolente cristiano frente al capitalismo liberal) sino también la actuación práctica de los individuos en su diversidad social, y también en sus contradicciones internas, vale decir: los conflictos éticos y políticos que gobiernan y dividen tanto a los movimientos sociales como a la interioridad de los individuos.

 


_____

 

Referencias

Bayard, Pierre. Demain est écrit. (Paradoxe). París: Minuit, 2005.

Goldsmith, Oliver. Essays of Oliver Goldsmith. Ed. Charles Duke Yonge. Nueva York: Macmillan, 1904.

García Landa, José Angel. "(El) Mañana habrá sido escrito." En García Landa, Vanity Fea 29 enero. 2008. Reseña de Demain est écrit, de Pierre Bayard.

https://garciala.blogia.com/2014/091105--el-ma-ana-habr-sido-escrito.php

2022

_____. "Goldsmith darwinista." 30 April 2009. Ibercampus (Vanity Fea) 2 mayo 2019.*

https://www.ibercampus.es/goldsmith-darwinista-38331.htm

2019

_____. "E. O. Wilson's The Meaning of Human Existence: A Conspectus." SSRN 3 julio 2015.

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2626377

National Trust. "Mary Horneck, 'The Jessamy Bride' later Mrs Francis Edward Gwyn (?1752-1840)." National Trust Collection.

 

https://www.nationaltrustcollections.org.uk/object/766137

2022

Oxford Companion to English Literature, ed. Margaret Drabble. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000.

Wilson, E. O. The Meaning of Human Existence. New York and London: Norton-Liveright, 2014.


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