A fine passage from Richard Gray's History of American Literature (2004: 404-7), on the novel by Francis Scott Fitzgerald (1926):
In writing The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald set out, as he put it, to "make something new—something
extraordinary and beautiful and simple and intricately patterned." And,
to achieve this, the first and most important choice he made was to
drop the third-person narrator of his two previous novels: This Side of Paradise and The Beautiful and the Damned
(1922). Instead of an omniscient viewpoint, there is a fictional
narrator: Nick Carraway, a man who is only slightly involved in the
action but who is profoundly affected by it. To some extent, Nick is
quite like the protagonist Jay Gatsby. Like so many representative
figures of the 1920s, including Fitzgerald himself, both are young
people from the Midwest trying to prove themselves in the East. The
East, and in particular its cities, have become for them a new
frontier, a neutral space in which their dreams of wealth, measureless
power, and mobility may perhaps be realized. Both Nick and Gatsby, too,
have a love affair with a charismatic woman that ends in disillusion:
Gatsby with Daisy Buchanan (a character modeled in part on Zelda Sayre)
and Nick with a glamorous golf professional called Jordan Baker. This
creates a bond of sympathy between the two men. Part of the immense
charm of this novel is inherent in its tone of elegiac romanceNick is
looking back on an action already completed that, as we know from the
beginning, ended in disaster, some "foul dust that floated in the wake"
of Gatsby's dreams; he is also recording how he grew to sympathize,
like and admire Jay Gatsby—on one memorable level, this is the story of
a love affair between two men. Liking, or even loving, does not mean
approval, however; and it does not inhibit criticism. Nick has had
"advantages" that Jay Gatsby, born to poverty as James Gatz, has not
had. He has a reserve, a common sense, and even an incurable honesty
that make him quite different from the subject of his meditations. That
helps to create distance, enables him to criticize Gatsby and the high
romanticism he embodies, and it makes his commentary vividly plural;
Nick is, as he himself puts it, "within and without, simultaneously
enchanted and repelled" by the hero he describes. The use of Nick
Carraway as a narrator, in effect, enables Fitzgerald to maintain a
balance for the first time in his career between the two sides of his
character.
The idealist, the romantic who believed in possibility and
perfectibility and the pragmatist, the realist convinced that life is
circumscribed, nasty, brutish, and short: these opposing tendencies are
both allowed their full play, the drama of the narration is
the tension between them. "The test of a first-rate intelligence,"
Fitzgerald was later to say in his autobiographical essay "The
Crack-Up" (The Crack-Up
(1945)) "is the ability to hold two opposed ideas in the mind at the
same time, and still retain the ability to function." That is precisely
what he does in The Great Gatsby,
thanks to the use o Nick Carraway as a narrator: by his own stringent
standards, the book is the product, not only of a refined sensibility
and a strenuous act of imaginative sympathy, but also of "a first-rate
intelligence."
What this first-rate intelligence is applied to is a story about the
reinvention of the self: the poor boy James Gatz who renamed and
recreated himself as Jay Gatsby, and who sees a woman as the crown,
center, and confirmation of this process. Daisy Buchanan is the dream
girl whose voice, sounding like both music and money, measures the
contradiction of the dream, its heady mix of mystery and the
materialmoral perfection and economic power. Gatsby
had known Daisy when he was younger, Nick and the reader learn, before
she was married to Tom Buchanan. Tom, incidentally, is a man born into
wealth and former football hero, whose sense of anticlimax since his
days of sporting glory has tempted him to embrace racist ideas for
explanation and excitement, to convince himself that he is not stale
and passed it; Fitzgerald is a brilliant analyst of the political
through the personal, and his story, lightly and even comically
sketched, is a brief history of what tempts people into fascism. But
Gatsby now wants to win Daisy back—to "repeat the past," as Nick
characterizes it, and "fix everything just the way it was before." The
erotic mingles with the elevated in this strange but somehow typically
American desire to remold the present and future in the shape of an
imagined past: looking backward and forward, Gatsby embodies a national
leaning toward, not just the confusion of the ethical with the
economic, but a peculiar form of nostalgic utopianism. Quickly, subtly,
the dream Gatsby cherishes begins to fray at the edges. The narrative
moves forward on an alternating rhythm of action and meditation, a
series of parties or similar social occasions around which the moments
of meditative commentary are woven; and Gatsby's parties—which he
approaches with the air of an artist, since they are momentary
realizations of his dream of order, glamour, and perfection—deteriorate
ever more quickly into sterility and violence. Daisy becomes less and
less amenable and malleable, less open to Gatsby's desire to idealize
or, it may be, use her (part of the subtle ambivalence of the novel is
that it can, and does, include the possibilites of both idealism and
use). Quite apart from anything else, she refuses to declare that she
has never loved her husband—something that may seem perfectly
reasonable but that Gatsby takes as proof of her contaminating contact
with a world other than his own.
Economical but also elegant, precisely visual but also patiently ruminative, The Great Gatsby
rapidly moves toward catastrophe. It is a catastrophe that draws
together many of the pivotal images of the book. The initial setting
for this concluding sequence is the Valley of Ashes, a waste land that
embodies "the foul dust floating in the wake of Gatsby's dreams," not
least because it reminds the reader that success is measured against
failure, power and wealth are defined by their opposites, there is no
victory in a competitive ethos without a victim. Among the victims in
this valley, presided over by the eyes of Dr. T. J. Eckleburg—an
enormous advertisement that somehow sees the realities Gatsby is
blinded to—is Myrtle Wilson, a resident of the place and the mistress
of Tom Buchanan. Her victim status is only confirmed when she runs out
in front of a car being driven by Daisy and is immediately killed.
Wilson, Myrtle's husband, makes the easy mistake of thinking Gatsby is
responsible for his wife's death. Tom and Daisy, when he asks them
where Gatsby lives, do not disabuse him. So, although it is Wilson who
actually kills Gatsby at the end of the story, the Buchanans are
morally responsible too. They retreat "back into their money, or their
vast carelessness, or whatever it was that kept them going." And, with
Gatsby, destroyed with the tacit connivance of the "very rich" he has
always admired, his dream shattered thanks to the quiet agency of the
woman he wanted to dwell at its center, the story is almost over.
Almost, but not quite. At the funeral of Gatsby, Nick meets Henry C.
Gatz, the father of the man who tried to reinvent himself. What he
learns about, among other things, is the scheme of self-improvement
that Gatsby drew up when he was still James Gatz and only a boy. The
scheme is written on the fly-leaf of a copy of "Hopalong Cassidy." And,
although it is an anticipation of the later ambitions of the hero, it
is also clearly a parody of the manual of self-help that Benjamin
Franklin drew up. By extension, it is a parody of all those other manuals of self-help that have thrived
in American writing ever since. It does not take too much ingenuity to
see that a link is being forged between Gatsby's response to life and
the frontier philosophy of individualism. The link is confirmed when
Nick confessses that he now sees the story of Gatsby as "a story of the
West after all"; in a sense, Gatsby and the Western hero are one. But
this is ont only a story of the West, Nick intimates, it is also a
story of America. That is powerfully articulated in the closing moments
of the story, when Gatsby's belief in "the green light, the orgiastic
future that year by year recedes before us" is connected to "the last
and greatest of all human dreams" that "flowered once for Dutch
sailors' eyes" as they encountered the "fresh green breast of the new
world." Gatsby believed in an ideal of Edenic innocence and perfection,
Nick has disclosed. So did America. Gatsby tried to make the future an
imitation of some mythic past. So did America. Gatsby tried to
transform his life into an ideal, the great good life of the
imagination, that strangely mixed the mystic and the material. So, the
reader infers, did America. Gatsby's dream is, in effect, the American
dream; and Fitzgerald is ultimately exploring a nation and a national
consciousness here as well as a single and singular man.
But who are the "we" in the famous ending sentence of the novel: "So we
beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the
past?" Americans, certainly, dreaming of the West in particular, but
also surely anyone who tries to search for meaning, realize an ideal,
or just make sense of their life—which includes just about everyone.
Even the brutally material Tom Buchanan tries to grope for an
explanation, something to help him feel his life is not just decline
and waste. What he finds to help him explain things may be not only
absurd but obscene, but it shows that even he, in his own blundering
way, is trying to make sense of things. Within the confines of the
story, though, the person who matters here, along with Gatsby, is the
teller of the tale. Nick is the crucial other member of the "we," the
company of those driven by the desire to shape experience into some
meaningful pattern, some radiant revelation. All the while, the reader
is reminded, it is Nick's consciousness recalling and rehearsing the
past in The Great Gatsby;
trying to understand it, to discover its shape and meaning. Nick
replicates in his telling of the tale what, fundamentally, Gatsby is
doing in the tale being told: there is a shared need ofr order here, a
pursuit of meaning that is definitively human. To that extent, Gatsby's
project is like Nick's; the form of the book dramatizes its theme. And
both form and theme point to a paradox basic to Fitzgerald's life and
writing. As Fitzgerald saw it, "we" must try to pursue the ideal; in
this sense, "we" are and must be romantics, and on this capacity
depends our survival as moral beings. But "we" must always remember
that the ideal will remain ceaselessly beyond our reach; in this sense,
"we" are and must be realists, and on this capacity depends our simple
continuation and our grasp on sense. No matter how hard "we" try to
reach out to the green light, it will continue to elude us, but "we"
must keep on trying. That is the paradox that fires Fitzgerald's work
into life. Or, as Fitzgerald himself succintly put it in "The
Crack-Up": "One should ... be able to see that things are hopeless
and yet be determined to make them otherwise."
—oOo—